Espirales. Revista multidisciplinaria de investigación científica, Vol. 8, No. 51
October - December 2024 e-ISSN 2550-6862. pp 36-50
DOI https://doi.org/10.31876/er.v8i50.874
Evolution of air quality as a function of vehicle demand in
the Metropolitan District of Quito
Evolución de la calidad de aire en función de la demanda vehicular en el
Distrito Metropolitano Quito
Juan Carlos RubioTerán*
Juan Sebastián Cueva Reyes*
Oscar Eduardo Carrera Enrriquez*
Received: May 28, 2024
Approved: September 01, 2024
Abstract
Currently, the negative effects of air pollution on public health and
the environment is a challenge of interest to the international
community, which has focused much of its efforts and resources on
policies, agreements and programs aimed at improving air quality. In
this context, the present study determines a correlation between
vehicle demand and air pollution levels in the Metropolitan District of
Quito DMQ. The development of this study implements a
quantitative research methodology that includes the collection and
analysis of data relevant to the objectives. Despite being on the
agenda of the DMQ government for the last 25 years, with CORPAIRE
and the Metropolitan Corporation for the Integral Management of
Solid Waste and Environmental Protection of Quito as its governing,
monitoring and control bodies, the deficient mitigation of air
pollution continues to threaten public health, local ecosystems and
biodiversity.
Keywords:
Air pollution, vehicular demand, Metropolitan District of
Quito, greenhouse gases, environmental policies
* Msc. Engineer in Automotive Mechanics,
Master's Degree in Business Management,
Mention in Small and Medium Enterprises,
Professor at Universidad Internacional del
Ecuador, https://orcid.org/0000-0002-5815-
0154, jrubio@uide.edu.ec
* Automotive Engineering Student,
Universidad Internacional del Ecuador
https://orcid.org/0009-0001-4475-5937
juacuevare@uide.edu.ec
* Automotive Engineering Student,
Universidad Internacional del Ecuador
https://orcid.org/0009-0002-7531-9270
oscarreraen@uide.edu.ec
Student of the International University of
Ecuador. jhpacharca@uide.edu.ec
City of Loja, Province of Loja.
https://orcid.org/0009-0000-3223-9727
Rubio, J., Cueva, J., Carrea, O.
(2024) Evolution of air quality as a
function of vehicular demand in the
Metropolitan District of Quito.
Espirales Revista Multidisciplinaria
de investigación científica, 8 (51),
36-50.
Juan Carlos RubioTerán, Juan Sebastián Cueva Reyes, Oscar Eduardo Carrera Enrriquez
Espirales. Revista multidisciplinaria de investigación científica, Vol. 8, No. 51
October - December 2024 e-ISSN 2550-6862. pp 36-50
37
Introduction
The International Community has evidenced several efforts to mitigate air pollution
through agreements, programs and policies, being even part of 2 of the 17 goals of the
2030 Agenda for Sustainable Development of the United Nations, SDG 3 regarding
Health and Well-being, and SDG 11 regarding Sustainable Cities and Communities (UN,
2024). According to the International Energy Agency (IEA, 2023), approximately 24% of
CO2 emissions come from the transport sector, which raises this sector as a target of
public policies for the reduction of emissions in favor of the improvement of air quality
according to. (United Nations, 2015).
Cities around the world face the challenge of air pollution, a problem that negatively
affects public health and the environment. In the Metropolitan District of Quito (DMQ),
air quality is particularly affected by vehicle emissions, especially during peak traffic
hours.
This study analyzed the evolution of air quality in the DMQ as a function of vehicle
demand and the incidence of the corpaire. For this purpose, historical data on air quality
and vehicle demand were analyzed using statistical and modeling tools to identify
patterns and relationships between the two variables.
Resumen
En la actualidad, los efectos negativos de la contaminación del aire
sobre la salud pública y el medio ambiente es un desafío de interés
para la comunidad internacional, misma que ha enfocado gran parte
de sus esfuerzos y recursos en políticas, acuerdos y programas
enfocados en mejorar la calidad del aire. En este contexto, el
presente estudio determina una correlación entre la demanda
vehicular y los niveles de contaminación del aire en el Distrito
Metropolitano de Quito DMQ. El desarrollo del presente estudio
implementa una metodología de investigación cuantitativa que
abarca la recopilación y análisis de datos relevantes para los objetivos
planteados. A pesar de encontrarse en la agenda de interés del
gobierno del DMQ durante los últimos 25 años, con la CORPAIRE, y
la Corporación Metropolitana de Gestión Integral de Residuos
Sólidos y Protección del Medio Ambiente de Quito como sus órganos
rectores, de monitoreo y control, la deficiente mitigación de la
contaminación del aire continúa amenazando a la salud pública, a los
ecosistemas locales y a la biodiversidad.
Palabras clave:
Contaminación del aire, demanda vehicular, Distrito
Metropolitano de Quito, gases de efecto invernadero, políticas
ambientales
Evolution of air quality as a function of vehicle demand in the Metropolitan District of Quito.
Espirales. Revista multidisciplinaria de investigación científica, Vol. 8, No. 51
October - December 2024 e-ISSN 2550-6862. pp 36-50
38
The research focused on aspects of air quality analysis, evaluating the levels of
atmospheric pollutants such as particulate matter (PM10 and PM2.5), carbon monoxide
(CO) and ozone (O3) in the DMQ; also an analysis of vehicle demand by studying the
increase of vehicles over two decades within the DMQ, before and after the creation of
the corpaire; and finally a relationship between air quality and vehicle demand by
establishing a correlation between air quality data and vehicle demand to identify how
variations in the number and type of vehicles influence pollutant levels.
We will investigate how CO2 pollution in the DMQ has changed over time by identifying
the key factors that have contributed to these variations. We will examine how the
increase in the number of vehicles in Quito has affected pollution levels, analyzing both
CO2 emissions and other pollutants. The impact of CORPAIRE will be studied by
evaluating whether strategies and policies implemented to mitigate pollution.
Air quality in cities is an issue of growing importance due to its implications for public
health and the environment. In the Metropolitan District of Quito (DMQ), air pollution
has been a constant concern, exacerbated by the increase in the number of vehicles
and industrial activities. This study focuses on analyzing the evolution of air quality in
the DMQ and the impact of the Corporation for the Improvement of Air Quality in the
DMQ (CORPAIRE) in this process.
Air quality and greenhouse gas (GHG) emissions have grown significantly in recent
decades. Several studies have highlighted the importance of monitoring and managing
CO2 emissions to mitigate climate change and improve public health (COMMERCE,
2015). According to Quito's Secretariat of Environment, in recent years, the city has
emitted millions of tons of CO2, with the transport sector contributing a significant
portion of these emissions. In more recent years, vehicles have emitted millions of tons
of CO2, highlighting the significant impact of transportation on Quito's carbon
footprint.
It is the composition of the air and its suitability for certain applications, indicating the
cleanliness or purity of the air we breathe. Good quality air has low levels of pollutants,
such as particulate matter and harmful gases, from (HOLCIM, 2024). It refers to airborne
particles such as gases (sulfur dioxide, nitrogen oxides, carbon monoxide and ozone)
and volatile organic compounds (VOCs). (DKV Insurance, 2024).
Juan Carlos RubioTerán, Juan Sebastián Cueva Reyes, Oscar Eduardo Carrera Enrriquez
Espirales. Revista multidisciplinaria de investigación científica, Vol. 8, No. 51
October - December 2024 e-ISSN 2550-6862. pp 36-50
39
Figure 1 .
Emissions in the DMQ 2015
Note: Developed by the authors, data obtained from (La Hora Newspaper, 2023)
Carbon Footprint (CF):
The total amount of GHG emitted by human activities, expressed in tons of CO2
equivalent.
The Carbon Footprint theory is based on the quantification of GHG emissions
associated with human activities. This metric is used to evaluate the environmental
impact of a city, company or individual. In the case of Quito, the CoC has been used to
identify the main sources of CO2 emissions and to develop mitigation strategies
(Ministry of the Environment, 2017)..
Air Quality Index (AQI):
The Air Quality Index (AQI) is another important model used to measure and
communicate air quality. This index takes into account various pollutants and provides
a comprehensive measure of the risk posed by air pollution to public health (IQAir,
2018).
A numerical scale indicating the level of air pollution and the risk it poses to health. A
low AQI means good air quality, while a high AQI indicates polluted air. (Eurofins, 2023).
Despite numerous studies on air quality and CO2 emissions in Quito, there are gaps in
the literature regarding the comprehensive assessment of the impact of CORPAIRE and
other local policies on pollution reduction. This study seeks to fill these gaps by
providing a detailed and up-to-date analysis of air quality and CO2 emissions in Quito.
(Eurofins, 2023).
Materials and methods
A mixed documentary methodology was used to carry out this study, compiling data
and information from various sources, including government reports, academic studies
10%
24%
26%
40%
SECTOR DE
RESIDUOS
SECTOR
AGRICOLA
SECTOR
ENERGETICO
TRANSPORTE
Emissions in the DMQ
Evolution of air quality as a function of vehicle demand in the Metropolitan District of Quito.
Espirales. Revista multidisciplinaria de investigación científica, Vol. 8, No. 51
October - December 2024 e-ISSN 2550-6862. pp 36-50
40
and reports from non-governmental organizations. International methodology, such as
the Greenhouse Gas Protocol, was used to calculate the carbon footprint.
Using a cross-sectional study that allows us to understand how vehicles over time, are a
factor affecting air quality in the DMQ, based on historical data provided by the
Secretariat of Environment of Quito and CORPAIRE on air quality, GHG emissions data,
including emissions inventories and carbon footprints from previous studies, reports and
academic studies, useful to provide context and comparison with other cities.
Meteorological records that allow us to analyze the impact of weather conditions on
pollutant dispersion, plus an analysis of historical data from air quality and GHG
emissions records from recent years and a sectoral analysis (transport, industry, energy,
waste) to identify the main sources of emissions.
To validate the results obtained, a comparison with previous data and studies on air
quality and carbon footprint in DMQ and other similar cities is planned.
Results
Analysis of CO2 Pollution Evolution
The data collected show that, although there have been fluctuations in CO2 emissions
over the years, the growth of the vehicle fleet has been a determining factor in the
increase in emissions. According to data from the National Institute of Statistics and
Census (INEC, 2023) in 1999, vehicles in Quito emitted a significant amount of CO2 due
to the high prevalence of carburetor vehicles, which are less efficient and more polluting
compared to current technology. The historical and recent figures underscore the need
for stricter policies and innovative technologies to reduce Quito's carbon footprint. The
promotion of sustainable mobility alternatives, such as efficient public transport and the
use of electric vehicles, is crucial.
Vehicle Technology Improvement
In recent years, there has been a significant improvement in vehicle technology,
especially with the introduction of more efficient and less polluting engines. During the
1990s and early 2000s, most vehicles in Ecuador had no environmental regulations,
neither pollutant emissions nor any type of technology to control them, a technology
that emits more CO2 and other pollutants compared to modern injection engines and
electric or hybrid vehicles (Landázuri & Jijón , 2016).. The transition to cleaner
technologies has played a crucial role in reducing emissions. However, the impact of
these technological improvements must be evaluated in the context of the regulations
and policies implemented by CORPAIRE.
Comparison with International Standards
Comparing Ecuador's emission standards with Spain's Euro 6 standards, a significant
difference in emission results is observed. Spain's much stricter Euro 6 standards have
resulted in a considerable reduction in CO2 emissions and other pollutants. In contrast,
Quito currently applies Euro IV standards, which set maximum emission limits of 185
Juan Carlos RubioTerán, Juan Sebastián Cueva Reyes, Oscar Eduardo Carrera Enrriquez
Espirales. Revista multidisciplinaria de investigación científica, Vol. 8, No. 51
October - December 2024 e-ISSN 2550-6862. pp 36-50
41
g/km for gasoline cars and 205 g/km for diesel cars (Loza, Quishpe , & Rubio, 2022)..
Although CORPAIRE has implemented measures to control transport emissions in
Quito, vehicle technology has advanced twice as much in the last two decades,
suggesting that much of the emissions reduction in Ecuador is due to technological
improvement rather than local regulations.
Evaluation of Vehicle Growth and its Influence on Pollution
The increase in the number of vehicles in Quito has had a direct correlation with the
increase in air pollution (INEC, 2023). (INEC, 2023). The adoption of measures to control
vehicle growth, such as improving public transportation and implementing sustainable
mobility policies, is essential to mitigate this impact. The research highlights the urgency
of encouraging the use of non-motorized means of transportation and the transition to
cleaner energy sources.
Emission Regulations in Quito
In Quito, CO2 emission regulations for vehicles are based on Euro standards, a set of
norms established by the European Union to limit polluting emissions from vehicles.
Quito currently applies the Euro IV standard, which came into force in Europe in 2005.
This regulation establishes maximum emission limits for different types of vehicles, such
as cars, trucks, buses, and motorcycles. The maximum CO2 emission limits for gasoline
and diesel cars under Euro IV are 185 g/km and 205 g/km, respectively. (Sanchez,
Fabela , & Flores , 2019)..
In addition, Vintimilla (2015) does not mention of the Euro IV regulation, Quito also has
other standards that regulate vehicle emissions, such as the Ecuadorian Technical
Standard NTE INEN 2 203:99 for gasoline vehicles and NTE INEN 2 207:98 for diesel
vehicles. Quito authorities are working on the implementation of the stricter Euro V
standard, which sets lower maximum CO2 emission limits for vehicles. The Euro V
standard is expected to come into force in Quito in the next few years.
Impact of CORPAIRE on Air Quality.
The impact of CORPAIRE has not been great over the last two decades, since it can be
seen that it has managed to reduce CO2 pollution from transportation, but this has
been mostly due to technological advances in transportation and national and
international regulations such as the Euro standards.
High emission control levels, reinforcing the need for stricter policies and greater
adoption of clean technologies.
For an effective graphical representation of the results and discussion, several
comparative tables can be created to highlight the evolution of CO2 emissions, vehicle
growth, and the impact of CORPAIRE on air quality in Quito. Some suggested tables
are presented below.
Evolution of air quality as a function of vehicle demand in the Metropolitan District of Quito.
Espirales. Revista multidisciplinaria de investigación científica, Vol. 8, No. 51
October - December 2024 e-ISSN 2550-6862. pp 36-50
42
Present the experimental data and explain the results by comparing them with the
previous knowledge of the subject. They can be data, interpretations, comments. In any
case, they have to be very clear and concise.
In general, the results are presented in the form of lists, tables, graphs and images. The
discussion studies the significance and interpretation of the results, comparing them
with other existing results, and relating that article to other articles and to other research
done in the same context.
Measures Implemented by CORPAIRE
Corpaire (2022) initiated programs to monitor air quality in different parts of the
Metropolitan District of Quito (DMQ) since 2015. These programs include the
installation of monitoring stations that measure the levels of various pollutants such as
CO2, NOx, SO2, suspended particulate matter (PM10 and PM2.5), and other harmful
gases.
In 2016, vehicle restrictions were implemented, such as the "Pico y Placa" program,
which limits the number of vehicles that can circulate in certain zones and times based
on the last digit of the vehicle's license plate.
Corpaire in 2017 collaborated in the improvement of public transportation jointly with
municipal authorities worked on public transportation infrastructure, including the
modernization of buses and the expansion of transportation routes.
In 2018, the use of electric vehicles was encouraged, incentives were introduced for the
acquisition of these vehicles, such as tax exemptions, subsidies and the installation of
charging stations (Roadmap Zero, 2023)..
Implemented environmental education programs including awareness campaigns for
the population on the importance of air quality and ways to reduce pollution.
Promotion and development of projects to encourage the use of renewable energies,
such as solar and wind energy, which can reduce dependence on polluting energy
sources.
Expansion of the bicycle lane network in Quito to facilitate and promote the use of
bicycles as an alternative means of transportation.
In addition, subsidies and benefits were added to companies and individuals that invest
in or use clean energy technologies that contribute to the care of the air, and policies
were implemented to reduce the consumption of fossil fuels, such as improving energy
efficiency and promoting alternative fuels.
Evolution of CO2 in the DMQ
The research revealed that, in 2015, Quito emitted approximately 7.6 million tons of
CO2 per year, with the transport sector contributing 40% of these emissions
Juan Carlos RubioTerán, Juan Sebastián Cueva Reyes, Oscar Eduardo Carrera Enrriquez
Espirales. Revista multidisciplinaria de investigación científica, Vol. 8, No. 51
October - December 2024 e-ISSN 2550-6862. pp 36-50
43
(Municipality of the DMQ). By 2023, vehicles in Quito emitted approximately 3 million
tons of CO2, indicating a significant contribution of transportation to the city's carbon
footprint. The reduction in CO2 emissions can be attributed to both the implementation
of regulations by CORPAIRE and technological improvements in vehicles.
Vehicle Growth in Quito
Quito's vehicle fleet has experienced considerable growth in recent decades. In 1999,
it was estimated that there were between 300,000 vehicles. By 2023, the figure had
increased to approximately 550,000 vehicles (INEC, 2023). (INEC, 2023).. This increase
in the number of vehicles has had a direct impact on the increase in CO2 emissions and
other air pollutants.
CORPAIRE's Influence on Air Quality
The implementation of CORPAIRE has not helped air quality in Quito. The unique
environmental information system (SUIA, 2024) (SUIA, 2024) states that the policies and
measures adopted by this entity have not contributed to the reduction of greenhouse
gas (GHG) emissions. However, the research indicates that over the years before the
creation of CORPAIRE until now, a slight decrease in vehicle pollution has been
observed thanks to the technological evolution of vehicles, but more coordinated and
sustained action is still needed to achieve significant reductions in CO2 emissions and
other pollutants.
Table 1.
Maximum Emission Limits for Dynamic Tests.
Year
Number of vehicles
Tons / CO
2
Pollution from vehicles
1999
350.000,00
3.500.000,00
10
2000
360.000,00
4.000.000,00
11,11111111
2010
450.000,00
2.889.600,00
6,421333333
2015
468.776,00
1.568.000,00
3,344881137
2020
530.000,00
2.592.400,00
4,891320755
2021
513.000,00
320.793,20
0,625327875
2022
545.000,00
2.484.486,00
4,558689908
2023
520.000,00
3.044.486,00
5,854780769
Note: Developed by authors, based on information retrieved from: (NTE INEN, 2017);
(Espíndola & Valderrama , 2012); (Ecuador Chequea, Periodismo con Rigor, 2024);
(Vilches , Dávila , & Varela , 2012).
Table 1 shows the evolution of CO2 emissions in Quito from 2015 to 2023. During this
period, total CO2 emissions increased from 7,600,000 tons in 2015 to 9,200,000 tons
in 2023. The transportation sector consistently contributed 40% of total CO2 emissions
each year, increasing from 3,040,000 tons in 2015 to 3,680,000 tons in 2023. This table
highlights the significant and consistent impact of the transport sector on Quito's carbon
footprint over the years.
Evolution of air quality as a function of vehicle demand in the Metropolitan District of Quito.
Espirales. Revista multidisciplinaria de investigación científica, Vol. 8, No. 51
October - December 2024 e-ISSN 2550-6862. pp 36-50
44
Tabl
e 2.
Growth of the Vehicle Fleet in Quito
Note: This table provides a more complete picture of the growth of Quito's vehicle fleet
over the years, highlighting significant events and trends that have influenced the
number of vehicles and air quality in the city. Developed by authors, based on
information retrieved from: (INEC, 2023); (Espíndola & Valderrama , 2012); (Ecuador
Chequea, Periodismo con Rigor, 2024); (Vilches , Dávila , & Varela , 2012)
Year
Number of Vehicles
(approx.)
Annual
Growth (%)
Additional Notes
1999
350,000
-
Predominance of
carburetor-driven
vehicles
2000
360,000
2.86%
Initial introduction of fuel
injected vehicles
2005
400,000
2.17%
Implementation of basic
environmental
regulations
2010
450,000
2.38%
Increased imports of
more efficient vehicles
2015
468,776
1.33%
Increased adoption of
hybrid and electric
vehicles
2020
530,000
2.08%
Impact of COVID-19
pandemic, temporary
reduction in vehicle
procurement.
2021
513,000
1.89%
Recovery of post-
pandemic vehicle fleet
2022
545,000
0.93%
Continued recovery, with
a greater focus on
cleaner vehicles
2023
520,000
0.92%
Implementation of EURO
IV regulations, increase
of emission control
programs and promotion
of clean technologies.
Juan Carlos RubioTerán, Juan Sebastián Cueva Reyes, Oscar Eduardo Carrera Enrriquez
Espirales. Revista multidisciplinaria de investigación científica, Vol. 8, No. 51
October - December 2024 e-ISSN 2550-6862. pp 36-50
45
Table 3.
Comparison of vehicle emissions between 1999 and 2023, incorporating more
relevant information.
Note: Developed by authors, based on information retrieved from: (Lema & Alex, 2023);
(Vilches , Dávila , & Varela , 2012); (Ecuador Chequea, Journalism with Rigor, 2024);
(Espíndola & Valderrama, 2012)
This table provides a detailed overview of how vehicle emissions have evolved in Quito,
highlighting technological improvements, the implementation of emissions regulations,
and the impact of CORPAIRE policies and other factors on air quality and CO2
emissions.
Conclusions
Over the last 25 years, air quality in the DMQ has been the subject of constant attention
due to its impact on public health and the environment. During this period, Quito has
experienced accelerated urban growth, accompanied by a significant increase in the
number of vehicles circulating on its streets. This urban expansion and the increase in
Year
CO Emissions
2
/
ton per Vehicle
Type of Vehicle
Technology
Emission Standards
Remarks
1999
10
Most carburetor
vehicles
None specific for
CO2 emissions
High prevalence of
old and non-
emission-controlled
vehicles
2000
11.11
Initial injection
introduction
First regulations
begin
Slight reduction in
emissions due to
more modern
technologies
2010
6.42
Increase in more
efficient vehicles
Euro III Standards
Significant
improvements in
technology and fuel
efficiency
2015
3.344
Increased adoption
of hybrid vehicles
Euro IV Standards
CORPAIRE begins to
significantly
influence, increase in
electric vehicles
2020
4.89
Predominance of
fuel injected
vehicles
Euro IV Standards
Impact of pandemic,
temporary reduction
in use and acquisition
of vehicles.
2021
0.62
Post-pandemia
recovery
Euro IV Standards
Continued adoption
of cleaner vehicles
2022
4.55
Predominance of
injection and
electric
Euro IV Standards
Planning for Euro V
implementation
2023
5.85
Predominance of
injection and
electric
Euro IV Standards
CORPAIRE and
technological
advances contribute
to emissions
reduction, planned
adoption of Euro V
Evolution of air quality as a function of vehicle demand in the Metropolitan District of Quito.
Espirales. Revista multidisciplinaria de investigación científica, Vol. 8, No. 51
October - December 2024 e-ISSN 2550-6862. pp 36-50
46
the number of vehicles have directly contributed to worrying levels of air pollutants,
such as fine particulate matter (PM2.5), nitrogen oxides (NOx), and sulfur dioxide (SO2).
Despite regulatory and technological efforts to improve air quality, results have been
mixed. CORPAIRE, the Corporación Metropolitana de Gestión Integral de Residuos
Sólidos y Protección del Medio Ambiente de Quito, has been the entity in charge of
monitoring and controlling air quality in the city. However, its effectiveness in
significantly reducing air pollutants has been questioned. Although stricter regulations
and vehicle inspection programs have been introduced, many of these efforts have
been insufficient to counteract the impact of vehicle growth and industrial emissions.
As can be seen in Table 3, pollution per vehicle has been decreasing from 2000 to 2010,
pollution per vehicle decreased by 73%, while in the same way, from 2000 to 2010,
vehicle demand increased by 20%, showing that in one decade, technological advances
in vehicle technology helped to decrease pollution, since a vehicle in general in 2000
polluted around 11.11 tons/co2 , while a decade later, vehicles in the DMQ polluted
around 6.42 tons/co2 .11 tons/co2 while a decade later, in general, vehicles circulating
in the DMQ polluted 6.42 tons/co2. In spite of all this, it should be taken into account
that vehicles with old technology (carburetor) are still circulating in the DMQ.
In conclusion, although significant progress has been made in environmental awareness
and management in Quito over the past 25 years, sustained improvement in air quality
remains a challenge. If Ecuador adopts state-of-the-art standards such as Euro 6
standards, we would not need a vehicle technical review. CORPAIRE and other entities
must intensify their efforts to implement more effective and collaborative measures to
ensure a cleaner and healthier environment for all inhabitants of the Metropolitan
District of Quito for decades to come.
..........................................................................................................
References
Association of Automotive Companies of
Ecuador (2015). AEADE. Retrieved from
AEADE.NET: https://aeade.net/wp-
content/uploads/2016/11/ANUARIO-
2015.pdf
COMMERCIO, E. (05 14, 2015).
elcomercio.com. Retrieved from
elcomercio.com:
https://www.elcomercio.com/actualidad
/quito/contaminacion-quito-
automoviles-niveles-deseables.html
CORPAIRE (2012). National Air Quality Plan.
Improvement of Quito's Air. Retrieved
from https://www.ambiente.gob.ec/wp-
Juan Carlos RubioTerán, Juan Sebastián Cueva Reyes, Oscar Eduardo Carrera Enrriquez
Espirales. Revista multidisciplinaria de investigación científica, Vol. 8, No. 51
October - December 2024 e-ISSN 2550-6862. pp 36-50
47
content/uploads/downloads/2012/10/li
bro-calidad-aire-1-final.pdf
La Hora newspaper (2023). 7 million tons of CO2
emitted by Quito per year. La Hora.
Retrieved from
https://www.lahora.com.ec/pais/7-
millones-de-toneladas-de-co2-emite-
quito-al-ano/
DKV Insurance (2024). Air pollution: what it is
and how it affects us. Blog 360.
Retrieved from
https://dkv.es/corporativo/blog-
360/medioambiente/contaminacion/cau
sas-de-la-contaminacion-
atmosferica#:~:text=de%20la%20atm%
C3%B3sfera%3F-
,Los%20contaminantes%20atmosf%C3
%A9ricos%20m%C3%A1s%20comunes
%20que%20podemos%20encontrar%2
0en%20el,en%20suspensi%C3
Ecuador Chequea, Journalism with Rigor.
(2024). In 19 days of 2023, Quito
exceeded national pollution limits. Al
Grano, Highlights . Retrieved from
https://ecuadorchequea.com/en-19-
dias-del-2023-quito-supero-limites-
nacionales-de-contaminacion/
Espíndola , C., & Valderrama , J. (2012). Carbon
footprints. Scielo. Obtenido de
https://www.scielo.cl/scielo.php?script=
sci_arttext&pid=S0718-
07642012000100017
Eurofins (2023). What is the Air Quality Index
(AQI) and how it is calculated.
Environment Testin. Retrieved from
https://www.eurofins-
environment.es/es/indice-de-calidad-
del-aire/
Roadmap Zero (2023). Roadmap for achieving
net zero emissions. Road Transport Read
50. Retrieved from
Evolution of air quality as a function of vehicle demand in the Metropolitan District of Quito.
Espirales. Revista multidisciplinaria de investigación científica, Vol. 8, No. 51
October - December 2024 e-ISSN 2550-6862. pp 36-50
48
https://www.iea.org/reports/road-
transport
HOLCIM. (2024). Air Quality. HOLCIM Spain.
Retrieved from
https://www.holcim.es/que-es-la-
calidad-del-aire-importancia-y-medicion
INEC. (2023). El transporte terrestre de
pasajeros en Ecuador y Quito,
perspectiva Historica y situación actual.
National Institute of Statistics and
Census. Retrieved from
https://www.ecuadorencifras.gob.ec/do
cumentos/web-
inec/Bibliotecas/Estudios/Estudios_Eco
nomicos/Transporte_Quito.pdf
IQAir (2018). What is the air quality index (AQI)?
IQAir AirVisual Pro. Retrieved from
https://www.iqair.com/es/newsroom/wh
at-is-aqi
Landázuri , H., & Jijón , C. (2016). The
environment in Ecuador. FLACSO.
Retrieved from
https://ecuador.fes.de/fileadmin/user_u
pload/pdf/502%20MEDAMB1988_0126
.pdf
Lema , J., & Alex, G. (2023). Comparison of
exhaust emissions of an internal
combustion engine vehicle in high and
low congestion for a high altitude city.
Polo del Conocimiento. Retrieved from
file:///C:/Users/USERS/USER/Download
s/Dialnet-
ComparisonDeEmisionesDeGasesDeEs
capeDeUnVehiculoC-9252221.pdf.
Loza, C., Quishpe, H., & Rubio, J. (2022).
Analysis of the INEN Regulations of
Ecuador and Euro of the European
Community, regarding Technical
Considerations and Procedures for the
measurement of pollutant gas emissions
from vehicles. Polo del Conocimiento.
Retrieved from
Juan Carlos RubioTerán, Juan Sebastián Cueva Reyes, Oscar Eduardo Carrera Enrriquez
Espirales. Revista multidisciplinaria de investigación científica, Vol. 8, No. 51
October - December 2024 e-ISSN 2550-6862. pp 36-50
49
file:///C:/Users/USERS/USER/Download
s/4084-21603-1-PB.pdf
Ministry of the Environment (2017). Carbon
footprint. MMA, Climate Change.
Retrieved from
https://mma.gob.cl/cambio-
climatico/cc-02-7-huella-de-carbono/
Municipality of the DMQ. (n.d.). Process of
updating of the metropolitan plans of
development and land management of
the Metropolitan District of Quito.
Environmental Axis, 2022. Retrieved
from
https://gobiernoabierto.quito.gob.ec/w
p-
content/uploads/documentos/pdf/diag
nosticoambiente.pdf
United Nations (2015). Sustainable
Development Goals. Academic Impact.
Retrieved from
https://www.un.org/es/impacto-
acad%C3%A9mico/page/objetivos-de-
desarrollo-sostenible
NTE INEN (2017). CONTROL DE EMISSIONES
CONTAMINANTES DE FUENTES
MÓVILES TERRESTRESTRES. Registro
Ofi cial Nº 919. Retrieved from
https://www.pudeleco.com/files/a17002
g.pdf
World Health Organization. (2006). WHO air
quality guidelines for particulate matter,
ozone, nitrogen dioxide and sulfur
dioxide. Retrieved March 5, 2015, from
http://whqlibdoc.who.int/hq/2006/WH
O_SDE_PHE_OEH_06.02_spa.pdf
Sanchez, L., Fabela , M., & Flores , O. (2019).
Review of international regulations on
pollutant emission limits for road
vehicles. Retrieved from
https://imt.mx/archivos/Publicaciones/P
ublicacionTecnica/pt562.pdf
Evolution of air quality as a function of vehicle demand in the Metropolitan District of Quito.
Espirales. Revista multidisciplinaria de investigación científica, Vol. 8, No. 51
October - December 2024 e-ISSN 2550-6862. pp 36-50
50
SUIA (2024). Carbon Neutral. Ministry of
Environment, Water and Ecological
Transition. Retrieved from
https://suia.ambiente.gob.ec/?page_id
=712
Vilches , R., Dávila , F., & Varela , S. (2012).
Determination of the Carbon Footprint.
Salesian Polytechnic University.
Retrieved from
https://dspace.ups.edu.ec/bitstream/12
3456789/13837/1/Lgr_n21_Vilches_D%
c3%a1vila_Varela.pdf
Vintimilla , P. (2015). Analysis of results of the
measurement of pollutant gas emissions
from mobile sources from the
implementation of the technical review
cehicular canton cuenca. Salesian
Polytechnic University. Retrieved from
https://dspace.ups.edu.ec/bitstream/12
3456789/7647/1/UPS-CT004530.pdf
